The egyptian vulture

The Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) is the smallest of the four species of European vultures (alongside the griffon, the bearded and the cinereous vultures). It is arguably the one with the most unique and charming appearance, defying the traditional vulture stereotype. When perched, the Egyptian vulture’s yellow face, the scruffy tufts of feathers on its head, and its pink feet give it a bizarre and striking appearance. In flight, it is characterized by beautiful black and white plumage, a large wingspan (155–170 cm), and a short, wedge-shaped tail. Even more singular is the appearance of the juveniles, with their cerulean gray face and legs and cinnamon-brown plumage. The Egyptian vulture prefers open pasture and cultivated areas with rocky walls nearby, which are essential for nesting (the species rarely nests on trees). It typically lays two eggs, less frequently one. This species reaches sexual maturity between 6 and 7 years of age. This small vulture, although mainly a scavenger, also feeds on excrement and placentas, which is why it often follows flocks and herds, hoping to take advantage of afterbirth. The Egyptian vulture’s Italian common name, “capovaccaio” (meaning “head of the cows”), is of Tuscan origin and derives from the bird’s habit of foraging on the ground among livestock. The range of the Egyptian vulture includes southern Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and India.

The smaller subspecies N. percnopterus ginginianus occurs in Nepal and India. In Europe, the Egyptian vulture is a predominantly migratory species that winters in sub-Saharan Africa and returns to Europe between March and October to breed.

The juveniles migrate to Africa in late summer and usually spend around three or four years there before returning to Europe. The species is resident on the island of Menorca (Balearic Islands, Spain) as is the subspecies N. percnopterus majorensis on the islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain).

Egyptian vulture using a stone to break an ostrich egg

Conservation status

The range of the Egyptian vulture includes southern Europe, Africa, the Middle East, central Asia and India. The European population, located around the Mediterranean basin, has around 3,000-4,500 pairs, most of which nest in Spain (1,490 registered in 2018). According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (BirdLife International, 2021), the Egyptian Vulture is classified as Endangered because the global population is experiencing a rapid decline. In Europe, where a 10% decrease occurred in the last three generations (roughly 40 years), the main threats affecting the species include poisoning (ingestion of poisoned baits or carcasses), electrocution, collision with wind turbines, habitat modifications, disturbance of nesting sites, and poaching.

Listed as Critically Endangered in the 2021 Red List of Italian nesting birds, the Egyptian vulture faces an extremely high risk of extinction, with only about 10/12 pairs remaining distributed across Sicily (8–10 pairs), Basilicata (2), and Sardinia (1). While the species nested in Calabria with one or two pairs until 2022, the last nesting in Puglia dates back to 2014.

Especially from the mid-20th century onwards, the Egyptian vulture population in Italy has suffered a rapid decline, leading to a dramatic reduction in its range and numbers. Up until the 1950s, the species was distributed across Tuscany, Lazio, Campania, Basilicata, Puglia, Calabria, and Sicily, with an estimated 150 breeding pairs (100 of which were in Sicily alone). It formerly nested in the Maritime Alps as well. By 1970, the number of registered breeding pairs had already dropped to 71, located across Tuscany, Lazio, Basilicata, Puglia, Calabria, and Sicily. By 2008, only 8–9 pairs remained (an 80% decrease in 42 years). Since then, the trend has remained relatively stable.

The threats

Poaching

In Europe, poaching is a widespread and difficult-to-quantify threat. It is considered the main cause of the rapid population decline of the Egyptian vulture in Italy during the 20th century and remains a significant negative factor, especially in stop over areas during migration such as the Province of Trapani, Italy.

GPS tracking has helped detect recent poaching cases in Sicily, Basilicata, and Malta targeting vultures born at CERM and released into the wild. Furthermore, it has been discovered that illegal killing occurs at sea, particularly in the Sicilian Channel. This area, which separates western Sicily from Tunisia, is a crucial flyway used during the autumn migration by Italian Egyptian vultures and tens of thousands of other birds belonging to other species breeding in Europe.

The young Clara killed in the Trapani area

Mappa dei capovaccai caduti in mare per bracconaggio

Map of Egyptian vulture deaths at sea linked to poaching

Electrocution

The Egyptian vulture is a species sensitive to electrocution, especially in areas where a scarcity of trees forces individuals to use power line supports as perches to rest or stay overnight. Cases of mortality caused by power lines are known in Italy and other European countries, as well as in wintering areas such as Ethiopia and Sudan.

The Egyptian vulture Diego, electrocuted on a medium voltage line

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Lead poisoning

Like many birds of prey, the Egyptian vulture is affected by lead poisoning caused by the ingestion of carcasses containing residues from lead ammunition. Although the overall conservation impact on different populations (in terms of fitness, productivity, and mortality) is not fully understood, numerous vulture deaths due to lead ingestion have been documented in Spain and Greece.

Wind power plants

The presence of wind farms constitutes a significant risk factor for the species: the collision of birds of prey with these huge rotating blades is a known cause of death. In Italy, an incident in Basilicata involved a young individual, born at CERM and released into the wild, which suffered the amputation of a wing.

The Egyptian vulture Sid with a wing amputated by a wind turbine

Anthropic disturbance

The Egyptian vulture is highly sensitive to human disturbance; therefore, activities near nesting sites can cause pairs to fly away, nests to be abandoned, and reproduction to fail. Hikers, photographers, and ornithologists can cause, even unknowingly, irreparable damage to this precious species, simply through their presence, curiosity, or the compulsive need to take a beautiful photo.

Not to mention activities such as sport climbing, which, in addition to seriously disturbing nesting, significantly reduce the availability of suitable, quiet breeding sites.

Scalatori in una parete del Parco Nazionale del Pollino

Climbers on a wall in the Pollino National Park

Migration

Migration is a time of extreme vulnerability that exposes animals to numerous anthropogenic threats. Furthermore, juveniles facing this journey for the first time encounter a treacherous trap: crossing the Mediterranean Sea to reach Africa.

For the Italian Egyptian vulture, the Mediterranean Sea is a significant barrier. Crossing it can be fatal if the juveniles do not follow the correct route, passing through western Sicily to Tunisia, which requires “only” 150 km of open sea crossing.

Unfortunately, a scarcity of experienced adults along this path means that few remain to guide the juveniles. Consequently, upon reaching southern Sicily, these juveniles venture into the open sea, facing an interminable and likely fatal 500 km crossing.

This “misguided” route is incredibly dangerous, as the individuals who take it often stop in Malta, an island notorious for the illegal poaching of protected species.

On the other hand, recent findings show that even on their proper migration route, Egyptian vultures are being shot down over the Mediterranean Sea between western Sicily and Tunisia. Consequently, migration is extremely dangerous for both adults and juveniles along both routes.

This is unequivocally demonstrated by the deaths of several birds born at the CERM centre and released into the wild.

Poison

The illegal yet widespread use of poisoned baits is one of the most serious threats to the conservation of the Egyptian vulture. The reasons for using poison are many: poison is often employed to eliminate predators of domestic livestock, species of hunting interest, or kill stray and wandering dogs.

In Italy, poisoned baits are often scattered in truffle-hunting areas during disputes among truffle foragers and foragers and hunters, aimed at killing competitors’ dogs and discouraging the use of certain grounds. Especially on some small islands, victims of the poisoned baits are small animals, such as lizards, that may bite tomatoes, grapes, and strawberries to quench their thirst and feed.

Also, the use of rodenticides, even legal ones designed for mice and voles in urban or agricultural areas, poses a significant threat to the Egyptian vulture. Rodent control campaigns in peri-urban areas, particularly near natural habitats or inside landfills, can result in a serious threat.

The poison acts non-selectively, making many species of necrophagous birds (vultures, red kites, and golden eagles, etc.) collateral victims when they feed on poisoned baits left on the ground or on the carcasses of poisoned animals. Between 1992 and 2017, authorities recorded 325 Egyptian vultures poisoned in Spain, with poisoning identified as the species’ primary cause of mortality in the country.

In the Balkans, illegal wildlife poisoning is a persistent problem, with serious incidents occurring frequently. For example, in 1993, 62 Egyptian vultures died from poison at a landfill in Macedonia, while in 2003, another seven Egyptian vultures died from the same cause in the eastern Rhodope Mountains.

The young Bianca died of probable poisoning in Tunisia

Habitat modifications and reduction of food availability

The Egyptian vulture prefers open areas with extensive agro-pastoral activities. The destruction of these environments, or their transformation into intensive cultivation (olive groves, vineyards, etc.), reduces the food availability for the species.

This situation is worsening because health regulations generally prevent livestock carcasses from being left on the ground for scavengers.

In Spain, for example, the Egyptian vulture has been adversely affected by the closure of traditional carcass dumping sites (muladares or vertederos). The situation is further aggravated by reduced food availability caused by the decline in wild rabbit populations.

The African transit and wintering areas

The African transit and wintering areas are extremely dangerous for Egyptian vultures due to rampant poaching and the use of poison to kill livestock predators. There are also known cases of Egyptian vultures being killed for food and to use their heads as amulets. Unfortunately, many Egyptian vultures from the Italian and Balkan peninsulas do not return from the African continent.